Punjab: History and Culture

 Punjab : Traditional Ornaments of Punjab
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Ornaments of great diversity found from archaeological sites make a fascinating study. We come across several pieces of ear ornaments, which can be divided under several groups like ear-tips, ear-studs, eardrops, earrings and ear-pendants. Bangles have been found in practically all materials known to the people of the Harappan civilization. Head and neck ornaments of gold, silver and bronze, including green jasper and burnt steatite have also been found.
It seems that for every part of the human body a special ornament has to be provided. But the significance of Punjabi jewelry lies outside of this amplitude, in variety and aesthetics. It is in fact a part of the Indian culture, a facet of its social pattern with deep religious overtones, and has to be viewed against this perspective. It is not surprising that jewelry was used as much by men as by women though more sparingly by the former.

Jewelry in India also has had social and economic implications. It is an investment as also a saving for emergencies. The jewelry given to the bride at the time of the marriage becomes her own possession. This was in addition to the love of personal adornment inherent in the women folk. But for mortal humans it also symbolizes the concept of immortality. Precious stones and precious metals, distinguished by this classification from other substance have, throughout the ages, stood for power and wealth. This concept of power and wealth, as imbibed through ornaments, seems to have remained integrated in the psyche of the Punjabi women.

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Ornaments, as symbol of power, wealth and femininity, and also as an investment by the Punjabi women, are found in many varieties and forms.
An endless variety of ornaments are used in local parlance, often only locally understood and each little change in the size or pattern of an ornament merits a different name. For instance, an ornament called sagi is a central head stud that supports the phulkari or dupatta or other headgear. It is a hemispherical with raised work all over with floral patterns carved out in horizontal circles, encased in lines and dots, and a star in the center. There are half-a-dozen varieties of sagi. When at the top-center a colored stone is fixed in it, it becomes sagi uchhi. Where several round beads are hung at the edge with silver chains, it becomes motianwali sagi. When two additional sagis are linked to the upper side they are known as sagi phul. A slight variation in its shape turns it into sagi chandiari. In addition to it there are more ornaments used for the head, followed by ornaments used for the ears, the neck, the arms, the fingers, the anklets and the feet. Thus the names of traditional ornaments used in Punjab run well into hundreds.

HEAD ORNAMENTS
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Men’s
Sarpesh – the jeweled aigrette worn in front of the turban,
Kutbiladar – an oval pendant worn over the forehead,
Kalgi – Plume in jeweled setting,
Mukat or Mutakh – a head dress worn by Hindus at weddings,
Turah-I-marwarid – tassels of pearls worn on the turban
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Women’s
Sisphul, chaunk or choti phul – a round boss worn on the hair over the forehead, it is cut or indented so as to resemble a gold flower like chrysanthemum.
Mauli – a long chain made of rows of pearls separated by jeweled studs, about 8 inches long hanging from the head on one side.
Sir mang – a pendant worn on the head by Hindus.
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ORNAMENTS WORN ON THE FOREHEAD
By Women only
Damni or dauni – a fringe hanging over the forehead on either side of the face, some of these are richly jeweled. These are of various varieties like kutabi and sosani
Tika or kashka – small ornament on the forehead which hangs from the middle of the head on the forehead with a chain. (pendant).
Chand bina – a moonshaped pendant.
Tawit – small amulets worn on the head.
Jhumar – a tassel shaped ornament or pendant.
Guchhi marwarid – a cluster of pearls.
Bindi – small tinsel forehead ornament.
Barwata – tinsel stars worn over the eyebrows, not to be confounded with Bhawata, an armlet.


EAR ORNAMENTS
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Men’s
Bala – very large ring worn by Khatris, Sikhs and Dogras, they have a pearl strung on the gold wire of which they are made.
Murki - smaller earrings of the same shape.
Dur – a small earring with three studs.
Birbali – a broad earring with three studs.
Durichah – an ear-ring with pendant tassel

Women’s
Bali or Goshwara – a set of rings worn on the edge of the ear.
Bali Bahaduri – it has a large pointed stud in the center.
Karnphul, Dhedu and Jhumka – all forms of tassel like ornaments, made with silver chains and little balls.
Pipal-watta, or Pipal Pata – like a murki, but has a drop or pendant to it ending in a fringe of little gold pipal leaves.
Kantala – A similar ornament like pipal-watta but this has a stud besides the pendant.
Bala Khungri – a heavy fringed earring.
Bala Katoriwalla – an earring with a bowl-like pendant.
Khalli – small earring;
Jalil – A small earring with a small jeweled central stud.
Phumni – silk and tinsel tassels.
Machh Machlian – a small gold figure of a fish worn as an earring.
Tid-patang – a crescent shaped jeweled pendant. Along the lower edge of the crescent hangs a row of gold pipal leaves.
Tandaura, Dedi – a huge star-shaped jeweled stud.
Mor Phunwar – pendant of jewels being an imitation of the figure of a peacock.

NOSE ORNAMENTS
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Women’s
Nath – a large nose ring, one side of ring being ornamented with a belt of jewels or a few pearls hung on to it.
Bulak – a small pendant either worn hung to the cartilage of the nose, or else strung to a nath.
Latkan – a sort of ornament of pendants put on to the thin gold ring called a nath, and hanging from it.
Morni – a small pendant for the above, shaped like the spread out tail of a peacock.
Laung – a small stud let into the flesh of the nostril on one side, generally of gold, with a pearl or turquoise on it.
Phuli – a small ring with a single emerald, or other stone of an oval shape, as a pendant.
Bohr – a dangling pendant of gold pipal-leaves.

NECKLACES AND NECK ORNAMENTS
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Men’s
Mala – a necklace of large beads handing down long and loose.
Kanth-kanthi – this fits rather close to the neck, the pendant may be omitted. This is also worn by women.
Nam – an amulet, round or star shaped, suspender from a twist of colored silk thread fastened round the neck by tying at the back, nearly like jugni.
Tawiz - a square amulet, jeweled or otherwise.
Takhti – a flat square plate engraved with figures etc.
Zanjiri – a set of chains.
Chandarmah – a large gold flat medal suspended by a single ring on a silk chair or cord.
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Women’s
Chandanhar – a collar or necklace of a great number of chains.
Mala – a plain necklace of pearls or gold bead, hanging down long.
Champakali – a necklace like a collar with pendants, the pendants or rays are either of plain metal or set with stones.
Jugni – a single jeweled pendant, hanging from a necklace of silk and elongated in shape.
Mohran – a gold mohur or coin hung by a silk necklace.
Haul Dil – a sort of amulet of jade cut in curves round the edge.
Hassi or Hass – like a torque, a ring or collar of silver, thick in the middle and thin at either end.
Guluband – a jeweled collar.
Mohnmala – a long necklace made of large gold beads, with an interval of gold twisted thread between each bead.
Atradan – a square jeweled or plain gold pendant attached to a silk chain.
Kandi – a chain of silk carrying amulet cases.
Silwatta – an amulet case, shaped like a small gold pillow or bolster, with two rings suspended from it.

ARM ORNAMENTS
Bazuband – a broad belt-like ornament generally mounted on silk and tied on the upper arm.
Nauratan – almost like bazuband, the ornament consisting of a band of nine gems set side by side and tied by silk ties.
Taviz – an amulet worn on the upper arm.
Anant – meaning endless, a large thin but solid ring of gold or silver, used chiefly by Hindus.
Bhawatta – a square gold ornament, worn on the upper arm.
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BRACELETS
Men’s
Ponchi – a series of strings of shells or small gold elongated beads worn on the wrist.
Kangan or Kara or Gokru – a bracelet of stiff metal, when the edges are serrated, it is called gokru.

Women’s
Ponchian – worn on the wrist, which are a several categories called kutbi, chuhadandi (the beads like a rat’s teeth), iliachdana (like cardamom grains) etc.
Kangan - worn on the wrist are generally of gold.
Banka – thick gold bracelets, mostly used by Hindus.
Gajra – a flexible bracelet made of square gold studs mounted on a silk band.
Churi – of several varieties generally made of a flat ribbon of gold or silver, bent round.
Bain – long silver sleeve or tube worn on both arms, like a lot of churis fastened together.
Band – an armlet, broad and heavy.
Jhankangan – small hollow karas with grains introduced into the hollow to rattle.

FINGER RINGS
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Anguthi – a ring set with stones also called mundri.
Challa – a plain hoop or whole hoop ring, with or without stones, being of gold or silver, but the same all round, challas are worn on the toe also.
Angutha – a big ring with a broad face worn on the toe.
Khari Panjangla – a set of finger rings of ordinary shape.
Shahelmi or Khari – a ring of long oval shape.
Birhamgand – a broad ring.

ANKLETS
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Pahzeb – various ankle ornaments made with chains and pendants of silver, which clink together when the weaver walks.
Chanjar – a large hollow ring which rattles when the wearer walks.
Kharian-apir or khalkhal – like karas worn on the ankles.
Khungru – a ring or ankle of long ornamental beads of silver worn on the feet.
Zanjiri – a set of chains with broad clasp, also known as tora.

Traditional Ornaments of Punjab
Rig-Veda, the oldest book in the world, mentions ornaments worn by the gods. Rudra, a Vedic deity, is described as "shining with brilliant gold ornaments" and "wearing" an adorable, uniform necklace". According to this book the demons also had plenty of gold and jewels and the kings and sages prayed to the God for valuables of that kind. Kakshivat, the sage, prayed for a son "decorated with golden earrings and jewel necklace".
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No doubt jewellery making is an ancient craft that goes back to the cave man and its popular use in ancient India is well established.
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Jewellery in India also has had social and economic implications. It is an investment as also a saving for emergencies. The jewellery given to the bride at the time of the marriage becomes her own possession called stridhan, woman's wealth. This was in addition to the love of personal adornment inherent in the women folk. But for mortal humans it also symbolises the concept of immortality. Precious stones and precious metals, distinguished by this classification from other substance have, throughout the ages, stood for power and wealth. And this concept of power and wealth, as imbibed through ornaments, seems to have remained integrated in the psyche of the Punjabi women through the ages and remarkably so despite a stream of war and rapine that marked the life of the people of the land of five rivers with continuous vicissitudes.
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Ornaments, as symbol of power, wealth and feminity, and also as an investment by the Punjabi women, are found in many varieties and forms. B.H. Baden-Powell, in his book Handbook of the Manufactures and Arts of the Punjab, published in 1872, lists 97 names of ornaments used in Punjab. And this list is by no means exhaustive, because an endless variety of ornaments are used in local parlance, often only locally understood, and each little change in the size or pattern of an ornament merits a different name.
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The reason for the prolification of names is the multiple variations of the same piece of ornament. For instance, an ornament called sagi is a central head stud that supports the phulkari or dupatta or other headgear. It is a hemispherical boss with raised work, all over with floral patterns carved out in horizontal circles, encased in lines and dots and dashes, and a star in the centre. Now there are half-a-dozen varieties of sagi. When at the top-centre a coloured stone is fixed in it, it becomes sagi uchhi. Where several round beads are hung at the edge with silver chains, it becomes sagi motianwali. When two additional sagis are linked to the upper side they are known as sagi phul. A slight variation in its complex shape turns it into sagi chandiari. When green or blue enamelling is done on it, it becomes sagi meenawali. This ornament is also known as sisphul, chaunk or choti phul.

In addition to it there are more ornaments used for the head, followed by ornaments used for the ears, the neck, the arms, the fingers, the anklets and the feet. Thus the names of traditional ornaments used in Punjab may well run into hundreds. According to the handbook of Manufactures and Arts of the Punjab, there is a complete range of traditional jewellary worn by the Men and Women of Punjab, not only for the enhancement of physical beauty but also for the retainment of the traditional Punjab culture.

Athough ornaments are much influenced by changing fashions, their continuity remains alive by peridocial revivals. And this is also true of the ornaments used by Punjabi Women, for many discarded designs have recently been gaining a fresh popularity. Some designs, however, remain always in vogue.

Gold has remained the most valuable as well as the most prominent metal for making ornaments. It was procured from several sources. According to Monograph on the Gold and Silver Works of the Punjab, compiled by E.D. Maclagan, and published in 1890, gold was procured from several sources. Its local source has been several of the small seasonal rivulets that descend from lower reaches of Himalaya and the Shivalik range of mountains. But the gold found in the sand of rivers has been - quite insignificant, and has had to be imported. The English, Australian and European gold was termed locally as passa and it came in the form of a lump or ingot. Panna or patra is the gold in the form of leaves. When old ornaments are melted down and sold in lump they appear in various sizes and shapes with various rates, and is known as desi passa.
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Several types of coins used to be melted and then made into ornaments in Punjab, such as Russian mohar, Jaipur mohar and ashrafi, Dutch ducats, Aurangzeb mohar, old mohars of Murshedabad and Farrukhebad etc. Russian gold was imported largely in the shape of five-rouble pieces, known as battis. The purest gold of all is known as kundan and is used for beating out gold leaves. It is also very generally used in setting stones, whence the seller of stones or murassakar is often known as kundansaz.
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The interest in getting ornaments of gold has not dwindled despite the fact that the price of the gold has gone up more than three thousand times in nearly a hundred years. One may not be inclined to believe that the prices of gold ornaments as recorded in the North Indian Notes and Queries of January 1892 were as under:
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Kara sada, or plain bracelet., 2 annas per tola of gold, of which 1/2 anna went to the goldsmith; karajarau, orjewelled bracelet, one rupee per tola, of which the goldsmith took half; gokharu or serrated bracelet, two annas a tola; bahi or solid tube-like armlet, 6 annas per tola, of which the goldsmith took half; paunchi or beaded wristlet, 12 annas per tola; bazuband, 12 annas a tola, of which the goldsmith got rupee one a pair.
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After gold, the next metal of priority was the silver. The only source of its local availability was Waziri Rupi Mines in Kulu which have now been worked for many decades. Most of the. silver, therefore, was imported from Europe into Amritsar via Bombay. Chinese silver was also imported. The coin most commonly melted for silver was the Nanakshahi or Sikh rupee, the silver of which was very commonly used for ornaments. More modern Sikh coins were known to the trade as Rajshahi and mainly represented by Patiala coinage. The Nandrami rupee from Kabul was used in the western districts, and was considered the next best silver after the Nanakshahi. Shah Shuja's and Dost Muhammad's coins were also held to be the best and were much in use in making ornaments on the frontier. Silver prepared from melted ornaments was also in use.

The gold and silver work, as far as the plain form of the article required, or as far as it can receive the required pattern by merely hammering on to a die or into a cold mould, is done by the sunar or gold-smith. If the ornament has then to be ornamented with bossed patterns, it goes to the chatera, the embosser and chaser. If jewels are to be set, the enamelling at the back is done by a minakar, and then the stone is set into the places prepared by the goldsmith by the marassiakar or kundansaz, whose sole *ork consists in putting some lac into the receptacle or hollow in the gold prepared to receive the stone, putting on a tinsel or foil prepared by the bindligar and then pressing in the stone, putting an a gold rim to keep it in place.

Who can resist the spell that is cast by the sparkle of a precious stone, by the mysterious glow of a pearl, or by the transcendent purity of gold . It has been said the 'purpose of ornaments is to light a kind of fire in a women's heart', it is, therefore, equally important to get ornaments made of pure metal.

Punjab :The Folk Songs & Music
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A folk song is essentially a subjective expression of the emotions walling up from the depths. It borrows its metamorphous and imagery from the simple things in life. Punjabi folksongs are varied and colorful. Laughter, happiness, pain, sorrow, all form ingredients of these songs. They are simple, charming, and full of the sincerity of emotion, and the purity of feeling. The entire Punjabi culture, so to speak, is reflected in them.

The Folk music of Punjab has crossed the borders of not only Punjab but also India and become popular all over the world. There is hardly an event or occasion in the countryside which does not find resonance in the soul of the people. Just as the villagers grow their own food and produce their own raiment’s, they frame folk songs to articulate the wordless passions seething in their hearts. These songs are chastened and polished from generation to generation, and like everything of slow growth, they develop an individuality, which does not lend itself to imitation.
A young maiden of the plains, wrapped up in thoughts of her lover sees a graceful ‘Pipal’ tree and breaks into a song or busy in the fields she begins to hum.
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A young farmer returning from his daily labor comes across a group of frolicsome maidens. Twilight has deepened into night and the moon has spread its mantle over the land. He stands spellbound and a song pours out from his beat.
A newly married girl is at the spinning wheal spinning helplessly late in the night. She does not leave off for fear of the mother-in-law and yet she is pinning to run to the arms of her husband waiting for her. She breaks into a song.
The days of carefree childhood have passed and the shadow of inevitable separation from her parents lengthens every day as youth blossoms menacingly. The maiden is conscious of this and so is the mother who sits dressing her hair in silence. The pent-up feelings break at last through a song.
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Folk songs are untranslatable. They cannot even be imprisoned in print. They are songs and not word composition and their charm consists solely in the rhythm, the emotional import, and the sweetness of their music. No stage free nature can provide the settings, which they need.
The real spirit of a folk-song rests not only in its text but also tune. The Popular tunes of Puniabi folk-songs ring with the heartthrobs of the simple unsophisticated villagers.
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The rhythm and beat of Punjabi folk music is simple. The rhythmic patterns are determined by the day-to-day activities of the villagers, the sound of the grinding stone, the drone of the spinning wheel, the creaking of the Persian wheel, the beat of the horse’s hooves etc. These rhythms refine into symmetrical pattern form the basis of the entire folk music of the Punjab.

There is a wide spread variation in the tunes and melodies of different regions of the Punjab. Boli is popular all over the Punjab. Even in one area the same song is sung differently by different groups. This element of flexibility in Punjabi folk music adds a lot of variety to it.

Punjabi folk music is primarily vocal in character and is seldom accompanied by instruments. But for songs which are sung on special occasions, the use of instruments is essential, particularly the dholak. The dholak is very popular with the Punjabis and is used on all occasions of social and festive significance. Innumerable memories are associated with its sound because all gaiety and celebrations of the family include the dholak as the basic and essential instrument.

SONGS ABOUT RELIGION, CULT AND SACRAMENT
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The Punjab is inhabited by people of different sects, religions and cults, which have their own modes of prayer and worship. But since folk poetry belongs to a whole social group, only those songs become popular which are acceptable to the entire community. Religion reflected in the folksongs is religion not of a sect but of the whole community.

Some remnants of nature worship can still be found in Punjabi culture. This worship has found expression in songs. When a Punjabi woman, especially an orthodox one, sees the new moon, she folds her hands and bows to it respectfully and recites folk songs.

Some people in the Punjab still worship trees. The peepal tree is supposed to be the manifestation of Brahma and all gods are believed to be residing in it. The peepal is thus extolled in a folk-song.
Punjabis are very religious. Theirs is the land of the Vedas enriched by the experiences of saints aid sages. Folk-songs abound in eulogies of famous gurus, bhagats and jogis, like Guru Nanak Dev, Guru Gobind Singh, Farid, Namdev, Gopi Chand, Bharthrihari and Puran.

There are devotional folk-songs about Indra, Brahma, Saraswati, Vaishno Devi, Ramehandra and Seeta and many that narrate small, interesting episodes from the life of Krishna. But characteristically these songs are not sectarian. They are sung and enjoyed by all Punjabis, depending upon the suitability of the occasion. There are some folksongs in which Hindu gods and goddesses and Muslim pirs are invoked simultaneously.

SONGS RELATED TO RITUALS AND CEREMONIES
Songs for ceremonial occasions have a great cultural significance. They are more an expression of the deeply felt emotions of the community as a whole and not of an individual. These songs are generally sung in groups. They are of great variety, and there are different songs for different occasions; for example, haria, suhag, vatna, ghorian, sithanian and alhanian. The life of a Punjabi is studded with songs. When a baby is born, all women of the family and the neighbourhood get together and sing haria. Some even sing ghorian on the birth of a son because according to Punjabis son is like bridegrooms from birth itself. The child grows in the midst of lullabies. The theme of the lullabies is invariably a mother's dreams about her son.

The wedding songs are the most interesting and popular ones. When girls come from the husband’s house to the parents to attend the marriage of their brothers, they sing sohile, the subject matter of which is superlative praise for the brother and the parental home. A few days before marriage, women get together daily at night and sing to the accompaniment of the dholaki. The songs sung at the bridegroom's house are called ghorian and those at the bride's house suhag. What the mother, sisters and sisters-in-law look forward to at the marriage of a boy of the family is all expressed vividly in ghorian.

Suhag is the echo of a young Punjabi girl's feelings. It draws attention to the young girl's hopes, dreams and joys of life. In Punjabi villages a young girl has no say in the choice of her husband. It is the parents who make the selection. The girl's feelings in the matter are sung of in many of the suhags.

Devin ve babla us ghare (Send me only to such a house, 0 father),
This song is an expression of a Punjabi girl's desire to go into a family where the mother-in-law is good and virtuous. The father-in-law holds an esteemed position, where the mother-in- law has many sons and is always busy celebrating marriages, where there are many buffaloes and such abundance or milk that the girl will always be busy churning curd and making butter.

When the marriage party arrives at the bride's house, songs are sung, which are doggerels full of wit and sarcasm. Sometimes women find them a handy medium to point out the weak points of the, bridegroom's party or of any particular member of it. These songs are packed with pungent wit but are accepted in good humor.
Similarly, expressive songs are sung on many other occasions connected with marriage. When the bridegroom is led into the bride's house before the wedding is solemnized, he has to recite chhand. This is a test of the boy's ability to speak intelligently, and also of his ready wit.

Songs are sung at the departure of the Doli. This is the time of separation. The girl has a heavy heart since she has to bid farewell to her parents and parental home; at the same time there is a subdued thrill at the prospect of her going to her husband's house. The Doli songs are very touching.

Sada chirian da chamba ve, babal assan ud jana.
Sadi lammi udari ve, babal kehre des jana.
Tere mehlan de vich vich ve, babal dola nahin langda.
Ik it puta devan, dhiye ghar ja apne.
Tera baghan de vich vich ve, babal charkha kaun katte?
Merian kattan potrian, dhiye ghar ja apne.
Mera chhuta kasida ve, babal das kaun kade?
Merian kadhan potrian, dhiye ghar ja apne.
Mera chhuta kasida ve, badal das kaun kade?
Merian kadhan potrian, dhiye ghar ja apne.
Ours is a flock of sparrows, dear father,
We’ll fly away
On a long, long flight,
We know not to which land we shall go.
Through your mansion’s door, dear father,
The doli won’t pass.
I’ll have a tali tree uprooted,
Go, for that is your home, O daughter.
In your mansion, dear father,
Who will do the spinning?
My Grand daughters will spin.
You go to your home, O daughter.
There is my left over embroidery ;
Who will finish it, father?
My grand daughters will do it, O daughter,
You must depart, for that is your home.
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When the girl goes to the house of her in-laws, the mother-in- law performs certain ceremonies. Songs are sung on this occasion too.
In the Punjab there are set tunes even for typical dirges. Alhahni and Vain belong to this category. The content, besides an assortment of rhythmic wailing cries, is a sad and philosophic commentary on the transience of life. Mourning songs are generally sung as slow, dragging chants, punctuated by shrill and wailing cries. Vain and alhania are songs for mourning. They are poignant songs, which help to release the pent-up emotions of the bereaved persons by stressing the pain of the departed soul.
Songs related to Fairs, Festivials, Important Days, Seasonal, Gods & Godesses are also included in this category. These songs are sung on occasions like birth of Son, naming ceremonies, Basant, Teeyan, Rakhari, Holi, Basakhi, Songs of Sati, Hanuman.

Punjabis are very religious. Theirs is the land of the Vedas enriched by the experiences of saints aid sages. Folk-songs abound in eulogies of famous gurus, bhagats and jogis, like Guru Nanak Dev, Guru Gobind Singh, Farid, Namdev, Gopi Chand, Bharthrihari and Puran.

There are devotional folk-songs about Indra, Brahma, Saraswati, Vaishno Devi, Ramehandra and Seeta and many that narrate small, interesting episodes from the life of Krishna. But characteristically these songs are not sectarian. They are sung and enjoyed by all Punjabis, depending upon the suitability of the occasion. There are some folksongs in which Hindu gods and goddesses and Muslim pirs are invoked simultaneously.

LOVE SONGS
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Love lyrics comprise the best part of Punjabi folklore. The songs of this category express the ecstasy of union as also the pangs of separation. These are mostly related to famous love stories like Heer Ranjha, Sohni Mahiwal. Sassi, Pannu, Mirza Sahiban. Other songs in this category are Mahiya, Tappe, Boliyan, Jindya, Dhola, Kafiyan, Saddan, Birhade.

Heer Ranjha, Sassi ,Punnu, Mirza Sahiban, and Sohni Mahiwal are particularly popular as tales of romance, and many eminent poets like Waris Shah and Hashim have narrated them in verse form. These sentimental tales are always sung in typical strains. For every tale the popular tune is different.
Mirza Sahiban is sung in long wistful notes; the tune is known as Sad (call). It is a mournful tune, and the singer generally puts one hand on his ear, and makes gestures with the other while he sings. This sad tale has been sung in many styles.
The tune used for Heer Ranjha is different from the one used for Puran Bhagat. The notes of Sindhu Bhairava can be traced in Heer Ranjha, while Puran Bhagat is sung in the musical notes of Asavari and Mand. Sohni Mahiwal is sung in Bhairavi, as also Yusuf Zulaikhan, but the tunes are different.

Although there are various folk tunes prevalent in the Punjab, Mahiya, Dhola and Boli are more popular than the rest.
As popular as Boli is Mahiya, which presents an expressive picture of the torments of separation and the thrills of reunion. Dhola like Mahlya is an appealing storehouse of the softest sentiments.

Mahiya, which originally became prevalent in the area now in western Pakistan, especially Pothobar, is today sung all over the Punjab. In almost all parts of Pothohar before the Punjab was divided, one came across people singing Mahiya while at work, especially the farmers toiling in their fields. A triplet of Mahiya is called tappa because it throbs with the heart-beat of the singers. The word, Mahiya originates from the word Mahi, both meaning the lover, because of the legendary lover Ranjha who was called Mahi (tender of buffaloes) as he looked after the herd of cattle owned by Heer's father. The word Mahi has now come to be permanently associated with this amorous relationship. Mahiya in substance is that form of folk verse in which the lover is addressed in the most touching expressions of love and pathos.

Mahiya comprising triplets has its own special structure. The first line contains a pen-picture, a description or an illustration, but sometimes it has no special meaning or relevance, since it is there only to maintain the rhyming pattern. The real substance is contained in the second and third lines. These two lines are very expressive and overflow with the most deeply felt longings of the people. Because they are deeply-felt emotions put into words, they are very effective. Every tappa is an entity in itself.

Do kapre sile hoe ne,
Bahron bhaven rusdhe an, vichon dil tan mile hoe ne.
Two pieces of cloth are stiched into one,
Though we sulk and fume without,
Within we two are one.

Dhola, an equally popular form of folk music, is highly lyrical and sentimental in character, love and beauty being its chief contents. Dhola has a variety of forms, those prevalent in Pothohar being quite different from those popular with the tribes of Sandalbar.

The Pothohari Dhola is rather condensed in form. Each stanza consists of five lines which can be further sub-divided into two parts of three and two lines, respectively. The first two lines of the first part rhyme with each other, while the third one is left loose. The second part, which is a couplet, intensifies and polishes up the meaning of the first three lines. Although this couplet is a sustained part of the first three lines, in a way it is quite self-contained. The singers of Dhola liberally use this couplet even independently. The rhythm keeps changing according to the variety of emotions portrayed. Singers themselves are the folk poets of these songs. When they sing with a hand on the ear in a long lifting refrain, there is such depth of feeling in the voice that it sounds like the moan of a love-sick soul or the heart-rending song of a damsel torn apart from her lover.

Dhola ve dhola hai dhola, hai dhola
Aja doven nachiye, hai dhola
Rut mastani, hai dhola.
Badi divani, hai dhola.

Boli is the most popular form of folk music of the eastern Punjab. It is generally in one line, a kind of couplet, and is the most miniature form of folk-song, in vogue. Boli, however, is very deep, effective and interesting in its impact. It has the brevity of a proverb, the appeal of Mahiya and sweetness all its own. It expresses a variety of emotions. In form, a Boli may, however, vary from one line to four, five or even more lines. The two famous folk-dances of the Punjab, Bhangra and Giddha are danced to the accompaniment of this form of folk-songs.

SONGS SUNG FOR AND BY CHILDREN
Lorian, Kikli, Thal etc. Loris or lullabies, a class apart, are sung in different tunes but the tempo is invariably slow. Every tune, whatever its text, tends to create a droning, dreamy atmosphere which leads the child into the alleys of sleep. Its rhyme scheme is crisp and brief and takes the form of an address. At the end of each rhyming arrangement, plain and simple syllabic sounds like "0, 0, 0," or "Ec, Ec, Ee", are hummed.

WOMEN AND FOLK-SONGS
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A woman's sentiments are deftly woven into the fine fabric of the folk-songs of the Punjab. The main supposition at the back of these songs is that a woman has two lives and two minds, one for her parents and the other for her in-laws. She draws strength from both families. In her new home after marriage, she leans on the husband, whereas in the parental home her attention is concentrated more on the brother than anyone else. In all her childhood games, she idealizes her brother, and after marriage, on all occasions of family celebrations, her brother brings her home from her husband's house. A Punjabi girl almost worships her brother. She is proud of him and custom has taught her to look forward to his visits, because on all festive occasions it is the brother who brings gifts to her house. Though she would like to show an extravagant hospitality towards her visiting brother, the inhibitions of the joint family stand in her way. She is afraid of the taunts of her mother-in-law.

Next to the brother it is the mother who is remembered most by the Punjabi girl for she is the sharer of her daughter's sorrows. A mother having borne much the same sort of suffering in her own life can understand her daughter's predicament best. The daughter comes to her and talks freely about the injustice and cruelty which she receives at the hands of her mother-in-law and sisters-in-law .

In her husband's home she is afraid of the mother-in-law's conventional tyranny. If the mother-in-law is good, life becomes a heaven, but what happens more often is that the cruel mother-in-law makes life a hell for her. She taunts her over small things, passes scathing remarks on her parents, brothers and sisters, and irritates her so much that her heart is filled with hatred for her. This dislike for the mother-in-law is expressed in many folk-songs of the Punjab.

SONGS OF TRINJAN
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Women seldom sit idle in the Punjab. When they are free from household chores, they bring out their spinning wheels and sit out in the open under a tree. Women of all ages and from all houses of the locality sit together and spin, and as they spin they sing. This is a common sight in the villages. Sometimes on a winter night they all assemble at someone's house and keep spinning and singing throughout the night. These spinning sessions are called trinjan. The day session is known as Chiri Chirunga (sparrows big and small) and the night session is called Rat Katni (spinning at night). Sometimes there are spinning competitions among young girls with a chain of songs in the background. Spinning is seldom independent of the song. Spinning goes on accompanied by spontaneous, unrestrained music.
Trinjan songs cover all aspects of life particularly the long cherished dreams of a woman, her aspirations, fears, love longings and tuggings at the heart. These songs combined with the drone of the spinning wheel create an enchanting atmosphere. There are endless profusion of the songs of the spinning wheel which are as varied and colorful as the flowers in the full blown garden. But the most are those which give expression to the feelings of the youth. This is how a newly wed who is happy in the love of her hubby sings;

Har charkhe de gere
Yad awen toon mitra

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During these sessions life long friendships are are formed and the girls who are married in far off places remember such meetings with nostalgic cravings;

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Nit nit vagde rahn ge pani,
Nit patan te mela,
Bachpan nit jawani bansi,
Te nit katan da mela,
Par jo pani aj patano langda,
Oh pher na aonda bhalke,
Beri da poor Trianjan dian koorian,
Pher na bethan ral ke.
Streams flow from day to day
And folks at ferries meet,
After childhood is youth
And Trianjan must repeat.
But waters gone ahead
Their backward flow restrain,
Boat crews and Trianjan girls,
Shall never meet again.

SONGS OF TEEYAN
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The festival of Teeyan is an occasion for all married girls to visit their parents for a few days, and thus enjoy again the carefree days of their childhood. They run to the swings on the peepal trees. It is fascinating to see the earth all round becoming green again, the welcome drops of rain falling, and the youthful girls in colourful dresses. The girls sing songs and dance Giddlia. Songs of Teeyan mostly speak of love, and are highly charged with emotion.
The peepal tree becomes the centre of attraction when the girls swing on the ropes thrown on the tree and the song goes
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"Dhan bhag mera", peepal akhe;
"Kurian ne pingan paaian".
Sawan vich kurian ne
Pinghan asman Charhian.
"How blessed am I", says peepal
"That the girls have hung rope-swings on me"
In the month of Sawan
Girls have swung their swings sky-high

FOLK SONGS OF BATTLES
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Considering that for centuries the Punjabis had to bear the brunt of foreign attacks, some folk-songs have a historical significance and reflect the attitude of the entire community towards certain events. The Punjab has been a frontier province and Punjabis have always suffered from the aftereffects of foreign invasions. Every invasion brought plunder, rape and arson in its wake. There is a song which gives a heart-rending description of the cruelty of a marauder who forcibly carries away a beautiful young lady. Her husband, father and brother, in spite of their earnest efforts, fail to rescue her, and the brave girl, instead of falling prey to that brute's passion, burns herself to death. The entire poignant tale is contained in a ballad.
The invasions of Nadir Shah and Ahmad Shah Abdali created terror among the people of the Punjab. There are some songs expressing their indignation towards them. When the long enslaved Indians started their fight for freedom from the British yoke, the offended masters let loose upon them a bell of spiteful cruelty. Some folk-songs refer to these movements of rebellion in the Punjab.

MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS OF PUNJAB
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